Ottoman Suzerainty and the Romanian Princes of the 16th Century

The 16th century strengthened the dependence of the Romanian Principalities on the Ottoman Porte. The status of Moldavia and Wallachia was not that of a province but of a vassal state, with its own prince, laws, church and army. The Romanian lands paid an annual tribute, called haraci, and made gifts (peşcheşuri), but they were not subject to direct Ottoman administration. Moldavia began to pay tribute as early as 1456, and Wallachia as early as the time of Mircea the Elder. No mosques were built, and the territory was not settled with a Muslim population, which preserved local identity.

Dobruja, under Ottoman rule since the 15th century, was integrated into the empire. In 1538 Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent led a campaign into Moldavia against Petru Rareș, the son of Stephen the Great, who had a turbulent reign (1527–1538 and 1541–1546). Rareș tried to extend Moldavian influence into Transylvania, holding the fortresses of Ciceu and Cetatea de Baltă, but he was defeated, and Moldavia lost southern Bessarabia (Budjak) and Tighina. His reign remains linked to the exterior painting of the monasteries of Bukovina, such as Moldovița and Sucevița.

The power of the boyars grew in this period, while the princes depended more and more on appointment by the sultan. Many rulers were overthrown through intrigues at Constantinople. Alexandru Lăpușneanu (1552–1561 and 1564–1568) was removed and then restored with Ottoman support, and is known for his repression of the boyars, as in Costache Negruzzi’s novella. John the Brave (Ioan Vodă cel Viteaz, 1572–1574) refused to raise the tribute and won victories over the Turks at Jilişte and Cahul, but he was defeated through the treachery of the boyars and killed in 1574.

In Wallachia, princes such as Mircea the Shepherd (1545–1552, 1553–1554, 1558–1559) and Petru Cercel (1583–1585) tried to consolidate their power and to bring in Renaissance cultural influences. Economic dependence deepened through the obligation to deliver grain, cattle, timber and honey to Istanbul at fixed prices. The Church remained a central institution, and the monasteries fostered culture through printed books and manuscripts. Deacon Coresi printed books in Romanian at Brașov, among them the “Gospel with Teaching” (1581), which played an essential role in unifying the literary language.

At the end of the 16th century the fiscal burden became oppressive, as the Ottoman Empire demanded more and more money while princely thrones were put up for auction. A new international context, marked by the “Long War” between the Ottoman Empire and the Habsburgs (1593–1606), gave the Romanians the chance to regain their independence. European Christendom formed the Holy League, and Romanian princes, among them Michael the Brave, acted against the Ottomans. It was in this setting that Michael the Brave’s struggle broke out, followed by the union of the three Romanian lands under his sceptre.